THE R.M. SANTILLI FOUNDATION
PROMOTING BASIC SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES AND SCIENTIFIC ETHICS


 

NEW SCIENCES FOR A NEW ERA

MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DISCOVERIES
OF RUGGERO MARIA SANTILLI

Under preparation by the Board of Directors of the Foundation
following Prof. Santilli's guidelines and quotations

Preliminary and partial draft.
For comments please contact
"board(at)santilli-foundation(dot)org"

Under construction and editing
September 8, 20010


CHAPTER 7:
NEW CLEAN ENERGIES
PERMITTED BY HADRONIC MECHANICS AND CHEMISTRY


7.1. INTRODUCTION

Let us initiate the closing chapter of this book with the following statement released by Santilli:

Owing to increasingly cataclysmic climactic events, whose violence is expected to increase in a progressively accelerating mode, the biggest need for the very survival of our society as known to us is that for new clean energies. Consequently, the biggest duty of our scientific institutions, for which I see no second, is the conception, testing and industrial development of new, environmentally friendly energies.

The problem is that, on one side, said institutions operate under a self-imposed mandate to conduct research solely in strict compliance with 20th century theories while, on the other side, all energies that could be conceived or are otherwise permitted by Einstein special relativity, quantum mechanics and quantum chemistry were fully identified by the middle of the past century and they all resulted as being environmentally unfriendly, either because of excessive production of green house gases, or because of the release of harmful radiations and radioactive nuclear waste nobody knows where or how to dispose of.

In view of the above scenario, the only serious hope for mankind to resolve our alarming environmental problems is to build generalizations-coverings of Einstein special relativity, quantum mechanics and quantum chemistry specifically conceived for the conception, testing and industrial development of new clean energies.

The dichotomy between scientific institutions and the environmental need for mankind is rendered unreassuring, with a consequential variety of issues pertaining to scientific ethics and accountability, by the fact that Einstein special relativity, quantum mechanics and quantum chemistry are strictly reversible over time, while all energy releasing processes are strictly irreversible. Hence the belief that the former preferred doctrines are exactly valid for the latter processes is amoral, asocial and ascientific, the only possible debatable issue being the selection of the appropriate generalizations-coverings.



Figure 7,1. In Santilli's view, tens of thousand of years have passed since man discovered fire, but we are still far from achieving an in depth quantitative representation of combustion for numerous reasons, such as: the irreversible character of combustion compared to the reversible character of quantum mechanics and chemistry; the absence in 20th century chemistry of a quantitative identification of the attractive force in a valence bond by keeping in mind that two identical electrons repel, rather than attract each other according to quantum mechanics; and other insufficiencies also discussed in Chapter 4. As shown in this chapter, our current inability to resolve increasingly alarming environmental problems ultimately originates from the insufficient knowledge of combustion.

To my best knowledge, the Lie-isotopic and Lie-admissible relativity, and related branches of hadronic mechanics and chemistry, are the only broadening of conventional doctrines verifying the conditions: 1) Directly universality for the class of admitted systems; 2) Invariance under their own time evolutions; and 3) Admission of conventional doctrines as simple particular cases. Additionally, the new covering disciplines and their novel underlying mathematics, have achieved operational maturity, as proved by experimental verifications in all quantitative sciences, as well as the prediction and industrial development of new clean energies.

In this chapter we review the new clean energies permitted by Santilli Lie-isotopic and Lie-admissible classical and operational formulations in atomic physics, nuclear physics and particle physics. A main objective of the presentation is to show that all new energies are prohibited by 20th century doctrines and, consequently, they are crucial dependent on "deviations" from orthodox theories. The main book underlying this chapter is:

The Physics of New Clean Energies and Fuels According to Hadronic Mechanics,> Special issue of the Journal of New Energy, 318 pages (1999).

Additional papers will be quoted later on when needed. An in depth knowledge of hadronic mechanics and chemistry as outlined in Chapters 3 and 4, respectively, is necessary for a technical understanding of this chapter, let alone to prevent the illusion of serious criticisms.


7.2. NEW CLEAN ENERGIES AT THE ATOMIC LEVEL

7,2A. Limitations of 20th century doctrines.

One of the most serious constrain in the evolution of science is the belief, rather widespread in the scientific community, that Einstein special relativity, quantum mechanics and quantum chemistry apply for all conceivable conditions existing in the universe, expectedly until the end of time. Unreassuringly such a belief is the very reason for the lack of resolution until now of our alarming environmental problems since said belief restrains the conception, let alone development of new clean energies.

In the preceding chapters, we have reviewed rather vast evidence on the limitations of 20th century theories in all quantitative sciences and their resolution by Santilli Lie-isotopic and/or Lie-admissible formulations. In preparation for the content of this section, we recall that Maxwell equations, the Lorentz-Poincare' symmetry and Einstein special relativity describe quite well an electric arc in vacuum (see Figure 4.16). However, when dealing with corresponding interior conditions, such as an electric arc in water, Santilli has identified a number of basic insufficiencies all with damaging environmental implications, among which we quote 9see for details the website www.magnegas.com):

1) Quantum mechanics and chemistry predict that a DC arc between carbon electrodes submerged within distilled water produces a combustible gas composed by 66% H2 and 33% CO. But CO is combustible in air producing CO2. Hence, quantum mechanics and chemistry predict that the combustion exhaust of said gas should contain about 40% CO2. Numerous measurements have established that the combustion exhaust of said gas contains about 4% to 6% of CO2 thus establishing close to a ten-fold deviation of the predictions of quantum mechanics and chemistry from measured data. Since CO2 is the gas responsible for increasingly cataclysmic climactic events, the study of combustible gases produced by submerged electric arcs cannot be effectively done with 20th century doctrines.

2) Quantum mechanics and chemistry predict that the combustion exhaust of the above gas in an exact stochyometric ratio with oxygen does not contain appreciable percentage of O2, said exhaust being composed by H2O and CO2. On the contrary, various measurements have established that the indicated combustion exhaust contains up to 14% breathable oxygen,thus establishing another large deviation of 20th century doctrines from reality. Since oxygen is the very essence of life, the insistence in the study of the indicated gas via 20th century doctrines is clearly not warranted for the solution of environmental problems.

3) By remembering that H2 contains about 300 BTU/scf and CO about 89 BTU/scf, according to quantum mechanics and chemistry the above combustible gas contains about 240 BTU/scf. However, clear experimental evidence establishes that said gas cuts thick metal plates much faster than acetylene that contains 2,400 BTU/scf, thus establishing yet another large deviation of 20th century theories from experimental evidence.

The above occurrences prove beyond scientific doubt that a quantitative understanding of the deviations from Einstein special relativity, quantum mechanics and quantum chemistry has primary relevance for the solution of our environmental problems.


7.2B. Molecular combustion

There exist several types of combustion generally classified for their macroscopic behavior, such as complete, incomplete, rapid, explosive and other combustion. However, at the microscopic level, all types of combustion are reducible to valence bonds among different atoms, as it is the case for the combustion of hydrogen in Oxygen

(7.1) H2 + O2/2 → H2O + heat (61,000 BTU/lb = 57 Kcal/mole) .

Similarly, we have the complete combustion of methane in air

(7.2) CH4 + 2 O2 → 2 CO + 2 H4O + heat (23,000 BTU/lb);

the incomplete combustion of propane in air

(7.3) 2 C3H8 + 7 O2 → 2C + 2 CO + 8 H2O + 2 CO4 + heat (21,000 BTU/lb)

and numerous other combustion.

In all cases, quantum chemistry has identified rather precise rules and data, combustion by combustion, that represent quite well experimental data. However, according to Santilli, we are essentially dealing with "nomenclatures" in the sense that the descriptions are mainly conceptual-mnemonic,since they lack a quantitative representation of the rather complex processes occurring at the level of individual valence couplings. After all, the very notion of valence coupling lacks a quantitative identification of the attractive force between identical valence electron pairs, by always keeping in mind that identical electrons repel each other according to quantum mechanics, and certainly they do not attract each other to form any bond (see Chapter 4 for details).


7.2C. Magnecular combustion.

Santilli never accepted the quantum mechanical and chemical combustion as final. His argument is that,m for instance, in combustion (7.1) the two H-atoms are widely separated in the H2O = H-O-H molecule, as clearly shown in Figure 4.7. Therefore, he argues that the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen releases much more energy than 57.5 Kcal/mole, the biggest portion of which is used by nature to separate the H2 = H-H and the O2 = O-O molecules. The measured amount of 57.5 Kcal/mole is merely the small final energy residue.

In fact, we have the following well established and known separation energies

(7,4) H2 → H + H - 104.2 Kcal/mole,

(7.5) O2/2 → (O + O)/2 - 119.1/2 Kcal/mole

Consequently, in Santilli's view, the belief that the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen solely produce 57.5 Kcal/mole violates the sacred principle of conservation of the energy since separations (7,4) and (7.5) would then occur by academic fiat and not by following physical or chemical laws.



Figure 7,2. A picture of MagneGas produced from distilled water that cuts a 2" (5 cm) thick metal place at double the speed of acetylene. The belief that said MagneGas has a conventional molecular structure would imply the gas to have 240 BTU/scf, while acetylene possess 2,400 BTU/scf, thus exiting the boundaries of science in favor of theologies. The sole possible quantitative interpretation is that MagneGas has Santilli's magnecular structure (Chapter 4) with a percentage of atoms being weakly bounded, and consequential much more efficient magnecular combustion (data from the U. S. public company Magnegas Corporation, www.magnegas.com).

Santilli argues that, as a necessary condition to verify the principle of conservation of the energy, the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen must produce 221.25 Kcal/mole so as to provide the energy necessary for the separation of H2 and O2 plus the 57.5 Kcal/mole residue, according to the combustion law for molecular hydrogen and oxygen

(7.6) H2 + O2/2 → (H + H) + (O + O)/2 + 221.25 Kcal/mole - 104.2 Kcal/mole - 59.5 →

→ H2O + 57.5 Kcal/mole.

Once the real combustion law has been understood, it is easy to see the environmental and industrial importance of Santilli's fuels with magnecular structure (Section 4.4) because they contain individual atoms under a bond weaker than the valence bond. Therefore, magnecular fuels yield an energy output greater than that of molecular fuels with the same atomic strucure. To clarify these new notion, Santilli has introduced the following definitions:

MOLECULAR COMBUSTION: is that for fuels whose atoms are entirely under a molecular bonds, such as hydrogen. methane, prophane, etc.

MAGNECULAR COMBUSTION: is that for fuels whose atoms are at least in part, under a magnecular bond, and the rest under a molecular bond, such as MagneGas, HHO, MagneHydrogen and others.

The superior energy output of magnecular fuels with respect to molecular fuels with the same atomic composition is beyond scientific doubt. Consider, for instance, MagneGas produced from distilled water that contains about 66% H-atoms, 16% O-atoms and 16% C-atoms, plus impurities here inessential. Recall that H2 contains about 300 BTU/scf, while CO contains about 89 BTU/scf. Consequently, the fuel with conventional chemical composition of 66% H2 and 33% CO contains (0.7 x 300 + 0.3 x 89) BTU/scf = 236 BTU/scf. It is beyond doubt that such a molecular fuel cannot possibly cut metal faster than acetylene, as any skeptic is requested to verify experimentally, as Santilli does, prior to venturing personal views.

By comparison, as idicated earlier, the gas with the same atomic structure, but with a magnecular structure, cuts metal at double the speed of acetylene that contains 2,400 BTU/scf. Any continued belief on the dominance of the valence bond for all possible substances existing in the universe until the end of time causes the existing of quantitative science and the passage to theologies. The only possible explanation of the energy output of MagneGas being bigger than acetylene is that via Santilli's principles of combustion based on the presence individual atros under a wek bond or, equivalemntly, top the dramatic rteductioon of energy lost for molecular separation.

A fully similar situation occurs for the HHO gas (Section 4.4) that, according to quantum chemistry, should contain 210 BTU/scf, namely, an output of energy basically insufficient for the instantaneous melting of tungsten and bricks. The same excess energy output occurs for MagneHydrogen and all gases with magnecular structure.


Figure 7,3. Increased energy output of a fuel cell obtained in 2000 by Santilli by using hydrogen separated from MagneGas. Similar increases of power were obtained via a conventional hydrogen treated with a special PlasmaArcFlow reactor (patented and international patnts pending). The principle of the increased power is that of magnecular combustion and it is due to the decrease of energy lost for molecular separation pior to combustion, thus yielding a greater energy output. Despite several solicitations, the above impoprtant tests were never repeated due top lack of interest to date (summer 2010) by the hydrogen and fuel cell industries.

To initiate a quantitative analysis, assume that the H-atom is bonded magnecularly with a yet unknown value of s Kcal/mole. We then have the following data for the combustion of MH2 = HxH in oxygen

(7.7) HxH → H + H - s Kcal/mole,

(7.8) O2/2 → (O + O)/2 - 59.55 Kcal/mole,

(7.9) HxH + O2/2 → H2O + (161.7 - s) Kcal/mole,

where one should keep in mind that the value s = 0 is expected at the combustion temperature.

It is easy to see that all mixtures of molecular H2 and magnecular MH2 yield a combustion energy output bigger than 57.5 Kcal/mole. As an example, a mixture of 10% MH2 and 90% H2 would yield (62.71 - s) Kcal/mole.

It should be stressed that the studies on Santilli's magnecular combustion are just at their infancy and so much remains to be done. In fact, such a novel combustion appears as being insufficient for a quantitative rerpesentation of large energy outputs, such as metal cutting with magneGas or brik melting with HHO, that require yet novel notions, such as the toroidalpolarization of thed orbitals of the atokms for deep and fast penetration within otehr structures, in addition to their weaker magnecular bomd.


7.3. NEW CLEAN ENERGIES AT THE NIUCLEAR LEVEL.

7.3A. Foreword.

  

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